Gyurta and Jamieson went head-to-head over the last 50m, with the Athens 2004 silver medallist lowering Christian Sprenger's world mark by 0.03 to 2:07.28.
Jamieson clocked 2:07.43 - the third fastest time in history - to claim the silver, with Ryo Tateishi of Japan (2:08.29) picking up the bronze medal.
Meanwhile, China's Jiao Liuyang added the 200m Butterfly title to the World Championships gold she won last year.
Jiao's time of 2:04.06 was a new Olympic record and helped her finish ahead of Spain's Mireia Belmonte Garcia and Natsumi Hoshi.
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